Syllabus
Unit 1
Fundamentals and classification of dyes
Definition of dyes and pigments and distinction between them. Historical development of dyes from natural to synthetic sources. Concept of colour and constitution including chromophore – auxochrome theory, resonance theory and molecular orbital theory. Classification of dyes based on origin (natural and synthetic), chemical structure and method of application. Important dye classes: azo dyes, anthraquinone dyes, indigo dyes, triphenylmethane dyes, phthalocyanine dyes, sulphur dyes, vat dyes, reactive dyes, disperse dyes and mordant dyes. Basic structure–property relationships. Mechanisms of dye synthesis with special emphasis on azo coupling reactions.
Unit 2
Dyeing processes, applications and environmental aspects
Methods of dyeing including batch, continuous and semi-continuous processes. Dyeing of different fibres such as cotton, wool, silk, polyester and nylon. Fastness properties of dyed materials (light, wash and rub fastness) and testing methods. Impact of dyes on environment and human health. Treatment of dye effluents by physical, chemical and biological methods. Natural dyes: sources, extraction and limitations. Recent advances in eco-friendly dyes, enzymatic and waterless dyeing technologies (supercritical CO) with reference to Indian traditional practices such as indigo dyeing and Kalamkari.
Unit 3
Insecticide Chemistry and Mode of Action
Definition and classification of insecticides based on chemical nature and mode of action. Synthesis, properties and applications of organochlorine, organophosphorus, carbamate and pyrethroid insecticides. Case studies of DDT, BHC, malathion, parathion, carbaryl and synthetic pyrethroids. Biochemical mode of action on insect nervous systems. Insect resistance mechanisms and resistance management strategies. Toxicological aspects, bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Principles and components of Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
Unit 4
Fertilizer Chemistry and Applications
Fertilizers: role in plant nutrition and soil chemistry. Classification into nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers. Advanced manufacture processes, properties and agronomic efficiency of ammonium sulphate, urea (including controlled-release urea), single and triple superphosphate, potassium chloride and potassium sulphate. Nutrient transformations in soil, fertilizer use efficiency and balanced fertilization. Soil–fertilizer–plant interactions.
Unit 5
Biofertilizers and Sustainable Practices
Biofertilizers and sustainable nutrient management. Microbial fertilizers including Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, blue-green algae and mycorrhiza. Mechanism of nitrogen fixation and phosphorus mobilization. Environmental impact of excessive insecticide and fertilizer use: soil degradation, groundwater contamination and eutrophication. Green chemistry approaches, nano-fertilizers, eco-friendly insecticides, regulatory guidelines and safety practices for sustainable agriculture.
Text Books / References
Textbooks:
- Sharma, B. K., Industrial Chemistry, Goel Publishing House, Meerut.
(Covers dyes, insecticides and fertilizers – very commonly cited)
- Venkataraman, K., The Chemistry of Synthetic Dyes, Academic Press, New York. (Core reference for Units I & II – dyes)
- Finar, I. L., Organic Chemistry, Vol. II, Pearson Education. (Reaction mechanisms and chemistry related to dyes and insecticides)
- Ware, G. W. and Whitacre, D. M., The Pesticide Book, Meister Media Worldwide. (Authoritative reference for insecticides – Unit III)
- Brady, G. S., Chemistry and Technology of Fertilizers, Prentice Hall of India. (Primary reference for fertilizer chemistry – Units IV & V)
