Publication

Abstract : Urea detection is essential as a biomarker and key indicator of renal function, metabolic disorders, and food adulteration. Electrochemical biosensors are gaining significance as potential tools for urea detection, offering high sensitivity, rapid response time, and ease of miniaturization. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of advancements from 2018 to 2024 in urea biosensors, focusing on a critical comparison of enzymatic (EN) and non-enzymatic (NE) approaches. Principles such as sensor architecture, immobilization techniques, and detection principles for amperometric, potentiometric, impedimetric, voltammetric and Field Effect Transistor (FET)-based sensors are examined. The impact of materials like metal oxides, graphene composites, and conducting polymers on sensor performance is highlighted. The combination of biosensors with machine learning (ML) and flexible electronics is also discussed, emphasizing towards real-time, portable applications. Key findings indicate superior stability and increased sensitivity of NE sensors, which achieve detection limits far lower than EN sensors. Material innovations and evolving trends in urea sensing have also been discussed. Despite progress, challenges remain in improving long-term stability, selectivity in complex matrices, and commercialization pathways. Addressing these challenges requires advanced nanocomposites and integrated designs to facilitate feasibility in future.